The Courier And Parcel Service Companies Marketing Essay

The Courier And Parcel Service Companies Marketing Essay The customers groups presented in figure 1 have similar requirements from their carious, such as fast shipments, low costs and high quality. However, they may differ in many ways, for example frequent demand and size of shipments. To compete in the global market, UPS provides to all their customers the most trustworthy and professional solutions in distribution and logistics. To better enhance their customers satisfaction, Courier companies has created value for their shareholders and sharing responsibility for their world. To provide real update system that track customers shipment, united parcel service for example has implemented UPSNET systems that keep tracking the shipment for long distance (around 500,000 miles) as well as satellite tracking that tracks thousands of packages in daily basis day and connect roughly 1.300 united parcel service distribution plants in 46 different nations. Furthermore, courier companies have focusing on keep benefits for their customers by placing increasing emphasis on the faster service, accuracy and timed delivery together with some ability to their customers to track packages. Responding to their customers needs, a parcel service company has recently adapted new technology namely; Delivery Information Acquisition Device (DIAD), (a custom-built electronic data collector). By adapting this new technology, courier and parcel service companies have are currently capture both delivery information and customers signatures. This data then entered into the DIAD and transmitted over the cellular network through telephones. DIAD system that has recently implemented provides the following benefits for the customers of courier and parcel service companies: Direct access to customers delivery information (more than five million for parcel service packages daily). Customers can track their shipment by phone mobile; customer shipments can be given real-time information on delivery status. A high degree of reliability as a result of the services redundancies and backup systems. The customer services at courier and parcel service companies always provides customers with all information that they need, exactly time about shipment arrives and who has received it is the most important information customers want to know. With many advance technologies adapted, courier and parcel service companies offers truly superlative service, both to merchants and to their customers, and can deliver to any part of the world. To better satisfy customers, courier and parcel service companies focus on certainty, safety and punctuality. Courier and parcel service companies always focus on satisfying our customers in term of politeness and manners of our staff. Furthermore, to provide benefits to its customers, courier and parcel service companies have committed to environmental improvements in all of its express packaging paperboard and plastic envelopes, and corrugated boxes and tubes. Most notably, courier and parcel service companies have removed all fiber from its packages and significantly increased the recycled material content that does not harm the environment (www.edf.org). Courier and parcel service companies understand the customers demand of less environment pollutions materials, the new improvements has made by couriers firms while maintaining or improving cost-competitiveness, customer friendliness, aesthetic attributes and functionality. We can say that courier and parcel service companies improved packaging has significantly lower environmental impacts, consuming fewer raw materials, water and energy during manufacturing, emitting less water and air pollution, and generating less solid waste, both in production and disposa l after use. Courier and parcel service companies understand that their customers differ in their demand. For targeted customers, including lawyers, mortgage brokers, and environmentally driven purchasers, the reusable envelope offers specific business benefits by facilitating document returns. This expanded service option of being able to use the just-received package as the return package has already enabled Courier and parcel service companies to capture new corporate accounts and attract new business from its competitors. Additional market gains are likely from packaging that has redesigned with the customers needs in mind, resulting in the introduction of several innovative changes that promote ease of use and enhanced functionality. These customer benefits can increase brand loyalty. The environmental leadership of courier and parcel service companies can support their overall brand equity and reputation with customers. Finally, one key benefit that courier and parcel service companies provide to their customers is the easy accessibility and use of their webpage. Courier and parcel service companies have taken the advantage to launch online services and applications before any of its competitors have. The Internet has enabled these firms to offer more services and do business directly with a greater number of customers. The website of courier firms also lets customers to check shipping rates worldwide and verify proof of delivery. 2. Discuses the challenges to TNT created by the specific characteristics of services TNT Express Services is a leading business-to-business express delivery company. TNTs aims to exceed their customers expectations through effective and efficient delivering of their goods and documents around the world. TNT always provides add-value to their clients by providing the most reliable and competent solutions through delivery networks. Figure 2 show the domestic and international market leader. Figure 2: Domestic and international market leader, Top 5 countries: 100%= Euro 13 Billion Source: http://group.tnt.com With all, successfully history that TNT has gained, the recent market researches indicates many challenges to TNT as well as other courier companies to meet its mission and objectives. Studies reported an increasing level of uncertainty is facing courier future market. These studies raise the concern about rising costs that may not be offset by price increases as of the completive nature of the market place. Increases the volume of sales via the internet expected to influence TNT as well as other courier services business, as they continued to be the distributor of choice for many sales companies, also shipping that is more international was being seen as trade liberalized around the world and the economies of developing countries improved. Furthermore, there is growing consensus between socialites, business forms and politicians about the climate change that harm the environment. The increasing levels of carbon (CO2) in the air because of fiber and plastic materials are trapping more heat, thus increasing global temperatures. The global worming phenomenon will give rise to all sorts of measures and regulations that try to decrease the CO2 emissions around the globe. On difficult situation, that TNT faced is to responded to this challenge by replacing plastic materials with more environment friendly and recycle materials. TNT realized that demographic trends are changing and creating challenges in the composition of the population across the world. For example, studies explain that Western European countries expected that between 20 per cent and 25 per cent of the population be above the age of sixty-five year old by 2020, while individual will live increasingly in cities with more than five million inhabitants, posing significant distribution challenges to TNT as well as other carious services (http://group.tnt.com). Because of the elderly population, expenditure of healthcare will dramatically increase. TNT realized that this trend have several implications for their transport and distribution chancels, such as growth of healthcare product flows, an increasing demand for consumer distribution networks, and possibly more challenges in attracting and retaining staff. One of the most challenges that TNT face is the mergers and acquisitions that would continue in order to remain competitive. TNT as well as other firms continues to collaborate with courier firms to increase their services in the face of declines in the volume of letter mail. More recently, TNT has signed up fifty new partners in 2005. However, it announced recently that it would no longer develop new partners. As result of this great challenge, TNT has stopped some regional development programs. TNT has improved and better developed its structure and merged its international and domestic courier services. Nowadays, TNTs courier services cater mainly to multinationals, which offers them both global and local courier services (http://www.knowledgeatwharton.com). To responds to mergers and acquisitions challenges, TNT has acquired in China, India and Brazil, and they have to work very hard to be able to meet up TNTs standards within three years after the acquisition date (http://group.tnt.com). One more challenge is the subcontractors of TNT Corporation. Subcontractors are involved in a substantial part of TNTs revenues, yet for many of them implementation of TNTs standards could be a burden because of the limited size of their operations or cost issues. Moreover, one challenge that persists in carious industries is the healthy and safety issue. For example, TNT faced numerous of health and safety regulations in the countries in which it operates. While their customers stress on the safety of their shipments, TNT executive is committed to enhance the safety by implementing best practices in safety management, processes, systems, tools and training. To response to this challenge, The Board of Management at TNT has provided adequate assets and has established quantifiable objectives and targets to maintain and continually improve TNTs health and safety performance. 3. Explain why customer care is a vital part of TNTs strategy in this competitive industry Improving Customers satisfaction is a key strategy for TNT to better enhance its competitive position in the global market as the leading business-to-business express delivery company in the world. Understanding customers needs and wants will improve TNT business and then increasing profits. To better understand customers, TNT has but various standards that primary developed from their customers feedbacks. It is a sign of TNTs commitment that it only measures where it has exceeded, rather than just met, customer expectations. TNT attempts to measure their customer satisfaction levels once every quarter, the results of the 2009 Customer Loyalty Measurement (CLM) Survey clearly indicate the steadily growth across all aspects of their business (http://www.tnt.com). TNT effortful seeks to be a firm that knows its customers and that responds to them with the best products and services that suite them. The only way to achieve this is to measure their customer satisfaction. TNT believes that constantly measuring customer satisfaction empty a sustainable competitive advantage, as no rivals firms could replicate the insight and the experiences that TNT has of its customers. As part of its strategy, TNT treats its customers in a friendly and professional, while it focused on improvement wherever possible. The two focuses believed to enhance TNT customers locality, and thus profitability. Twice a year, TNT measures their customer satisfaction and loyalty, which reaching at least 60% of the trading account base, covering all customer sizes from global to small and customers, and covering all lines of business. The measurement relates to the key customer satisfaction drivers as stated by customers in customer forums. Satisfaction measured for each key tr ansaction component from the booking through to the invoicing process and analyzed independently with an external specialist provider. Added to paper survey TNT distributed to all their customers, by the call centre department, TNT conducts a customer satisfaction survey among consumers and small and medium sized enterprises served. For the larger business firms, TNT conducted an annual survey to measure their satisfaction on services provided. TNT has a method to measure their customers satisfaction. TNT calculated the final score taken by customers and taking the weight give to values and multiplying this by the score for each value. Figure 3 and 4 shows the customers satisfaction express for the final score. From TNT management point of view, this score is more relevant and reliable than the consumer score, and in addition, the other scores give virtually the same picture. Figure 3: Customer satisfaction expresses Figure 4: customer satisfaction Mail Source: http://group.tnt.com/annualreports/annualreport07/annual_report/chap-2.html As employees are internal customers, TNT develop marketing strategy that aims to instilling pride to their internal customers. To TNT, this means that all employees are valued individual and that TNT consistently enhance and supports development of their employees skills, capabilities and competencies to deliver performance and enable career development and personal growth. TNT delegates employees to go the extra mile for their customers that would enforce their company values. In return, TNT ensures that all hard workers rewarded. As part of their Human resource strategy, TNT rewards their employees performance according to market practice. TNT seeks to attract, motivate and retain the best employees who meet TNTs current and future goals and objectives. Finally, TNT focuses on customers care (e.g. employees) as part of their marketing strategies because they believe that inspiring and leading employees to a specific level of performance that gives excellent customer experience. The head-managers at TNT expected to treat all stuff with respect, integrity and motivation way, employees who work hard rewarded as well as their head-manager. This make TNT staff feel more responsible for building the comfort possible work environment and create for their team the best corporate culture that focus on performance improvement. TNT aims to similarity apply this philosophy to its subcontractors that enhance their culture of high inspiration. 4. What do you see as the main areas of competitive advantage in the future? Explain how TNT can use these to remain a market leader From my reading, I found that there are many potential competitive advantages in the future for carious industries. On of future competitive advantages is focusing on improving services through the adaption of new technology. In our dynamic business environment, TNT also should constant focus on innovation and ideas that are imperative. In future, the innovations become the product itself. It said that It does not take a production line to compete, just a good idea that makes all the difference. From my reading I found that the company who adapt the technology first achieve a competitive advantageous over the other firms. Furthermore, from my understanding, I found that couriers companies, in order to achieve competitive edge they have to distinguish their self and their name. The brand name to carious industry is very important for present and future competitive edge. TNTs thus should develop a strategy that aims to differentiate their brand name through inspiring initiatives on responsible corporate nationality. Furthermore, I believe that TNT has to make its own reputation building that sustains its future competitiveness. Today, TNT believed to be highly relevant, high-recognized brand for its customers in the Netherlands. However, I believe that outside Europe, TNT, as well as other carious brands that delivery services deemed as low-end and it is still facing insufficient differentiation. In the state of Kuwait TNT is almost unknown brand name compared to HDL, American express and Aramic. Therefore, I believe that for future competitive advantages, TNT a as well as other carious companies should better articulates what makes their brand unique, both internally as well as externally. Furthermore, to be in competitive position in future, TNT has to persist focusing on their quality and performance. Quality and high services performances should not considered as a different issue within a firm and the constant improvement philosophy has to be as an integral part of the business strategy of TNT as well as other companies in this industry. Like focusing on customers care and add value services, I believe that the quality issue thus should be incorporated into TNT corporate culture. TNT thus should interestingly focus in performance improving of their transportation services as a whole. To achieve this objective, TNT has recently shared in the Logistics and Transport Sustainability Group (LTSG) of the World Economic Forum. However, I believe that TNT should use the recommendation and directions of its stakeholder as a key for its discussions with its competitors. Future competitive position can by no means to be achieved without focusing on employees training program and education courses. I believe that training staff and motivation play a key part of achieving competitive adage to customers service performance. Employees motivation, communication, commitment and an ability to work in team should take into account when talking new staff, beside academic records and previous years of experiences. I believe that if all employees are given training courses that focus on customer care as part of their induction, this will create better corporate culture that enhance TNT goals and objectives. The key skill in a technology society is the ability to learn. With constant training of employees and personnel to changes in the industry and technology will put companies in a position to better serve their customers that are the driving force for any business. Atkinson uttered; There has to be a culture of customer care which is generated throughout the company. if you havent got the right attitude youll never get the job done successfully . (http://www.roadtransport.com) I believe that one of today as well as future competitive advantages that carious company should considered is the social responsibility. TNTs should seek to take part and share the responsibility for the world in which it operates. If TNT considered the social responsibility, they would benefits from globalization and the increase in global flows of goods that is a result. As technologies make the distances between the continents get smaller, all residents of this planet are becoming neighbors. This implies that the difficulties of the developing countries are also the problems of the developed part of the world, which make a heavy responsibility on TNT Corporation. Today, TNT is certain that any plans or actions that a firm embarks to better address a major problem can be a vital source of pride for its employees and positively influence a firm reputation. However, I believe that for future competitive edge, sharing the societies responsibility are vital factors for TNT as well as any other carious services in this industry, where success is a direct result of social engagement, their satisfaction and employees and customers trust. 5. Critique the methods use to measure customer satisfaction and levels of customer care TNT measure customer satisfaction and loyalty in quarter bases by uses various methods to measure customer satisfactions including mail, survey paper form and phone call centers. Feedback from various customers leads TNT to revise their attitude and improve their performance standards. TNT contacts with all of its customers, from multinational businesses to small and customers. In their mission, TNT stated that; We aim to always exceed customers expectations. And we encourage our people to go the extra mile. They ask their customers about many aspect of dealing with TNT services. The conventionally key performance indicator for their failures or success is the extend to which errors were minimized. I believe that this traditionally approach partially reflect the real performance of TNT, however other indicators such as, quality of shipments, speed, and employees friendliness thus should be incorporated too. TNT has established customer satisfaction unit that comprising a driver, loading bank operative salesperson, clerk and traffic office operator. The unit managed by a supervisor or an executive who prepares an action plan to enhance the progress of the action plan in monthly meetings. Furthermore, TNT has come up with a concept is calls the Perfect Transaction that help in testing performance. this measures all, the elements of delivery such as whether the consignment was collected on time, what condition it arrived in, and whether an accurate invoice was produced, TNT take 10 % of consignments and measure them at random, we believe that this gives us a good view of what is going on in the business Atkinson says. From my reading, I found that TNT customers express do not considered the question of who is quality or to be blame, their primary focus is on that the service promised and paid to be delivered in time. To better develop and enhance their services based these customers feedback, TNT prepared deliveries on be on time, this become as prime standard of performance for TNT. Weekly reports for each location showing actual. Results for all for the following outcomes were introduced and this ongoing measurement discipline continues to help refine quality of service, Deliveries on time, misrouted consignments, copy consignment notes raised and not matched with original documents, and failures to deliver on time analyzed by reason. Increasingly, TNT developed further performance indicator targets for the support processes to include their administrative and selling function. At present, TNT heavily depends on their customers feedback, which provides measures of their ability of satisfy customers. Frequent and unrelenting reporting disciplines continue to help quickly introduce improvements whenever standards are not achieved. A named individual at each depot is responsible for each key performance outcomes and staff is empowered to call on additional resources to achieve required results. From my own perspective, I believe that TNT undertaking too frequent monitoring and measuring of their customer satisfaction and loyalty. This could be disadvantageous because trends do not have time to emerge. From my experience, TNT would be better to react to customer survey results rather than looking at the bigger and longer-term picture. I believe its it is helpful, for example, to set specific improvement targets once or twice a year basis and to monitor the effectiveness of these improvements. Importantly, customer research results need to be communicated to employees so that improvements can be made. Finally, TNT would be better if they use various indicators for their success besides measuring errors. To success in the global market, TNT should focus on measuring other aspects that may have but not direct relation to their success, for example measuring employee friendliness, customer expectation toward speed, quality, and prices. Finally, I strongly recommend TNT to compare results of customers survey with various competitors in the market. TNT should not be satisfied because the result of their survey is high, but they have always to compare themselves with other market competitive. The aim of this comparisons is that TNT can better understand their weakness and strength related to the industry, which eventually enhance and improve their development.

Democracy in America

The Formation of American Identity Morgan Hersha IAH 201 Professor Emily Conroy-Krutz February 21, 2013 Americans pride themselves on their nation and its achievements, but most of all, their freedom. â€Å"Nothing is more wonderful than the art of being free, but nothing is harder to learn how to use than freedom. † It is a blessing to live under such a great constitution and we as citizens should be knowledgeable about where, when, and how it all it began. People are who they are because of the experiences that they have been through throughout their life.This is the same case for America. The United States has formed its identity through experiences, both good and bad. After a long history of both conflict and peace, the United States formed as a union influenced both by European cultures and Native American culture. It all started when Christopher Columbus set sail and him along with the Europeans colonized to America. The Europeans brought their culture and ideas with the m. We Americans just like any culture like to pass on our traditions to the generations to come.The things that I have learned in this class have tied into things today, or at least their origin. The shared history and culture that was developed is still evolving today. During the colonial and revolutionary periods of American history, Native Americans, wars, and European culture all impacted what it meant to be American, and its identity. Native Americans contributed to American identity tremendously. Early American settlers developed many skills that they learned from the Native Americans such as agriculture, language, and even governmental structure.Without the Native Americans it would have been difficult for colonists to be successful and survive. The colonists played a role like a tourist, and the Native Americans acted as guides. Native Americans depended on trade, and they shared this strategy with the colonists. Europeans would send things such as fur in return for things s uch as guns and salt. The French trading company was set up. It was thought the Native Americans receive civilization and Christianity, while the Europeans receive labor and land.This was obviously extremely unfair and the colonists were highly upset over this. The colonists were practically raised by the Native Americans, but once they were able to stand on their own two feet, they took a stand to the Native Americans due to their frustration. During the colonial times of America, multiple wars took place in order to get rid, or displace the Native Americans. During this time the Native Americans were treated horribly. It was their homeland and it was being taken from them, and some were even taken in as slaves.The colonists started to build on the Connecticut River Valley, but the only thing stopping them was the Pequots. At this time is when the colonists and Native Americans decide to unite against the Pequots, starting the Pequot War in 1637. The English set fire to a fort, whi ch burned down the whole thing leaving about 5 survivors. The English believe that their easy victory meant that God was on their side. The English wanted to adopt the women and children and bring them into their own tribes and convert them into Christianity. The Wampanoag Indians did not want to live by the moral code of the Puritans.Massasoit was chief of the Wampanoag, he then died and Wamsuette took over which is when things began to fall apart. The sudden death of Wamsuetta was believed to be the cause the King Phillips war in 1975-1976, said to be the bloodiest war in history. During this war 5,000 Native people did, and Phillip retreated home. Many people argue over the justification of taking the land of the Native America. â€Å"It was a solemn sight to see so many Christians lying in their blood, some here and some there, like a company of sheep torn by wolves. Some say that the colonists came there to express their religion and gain wealth, while others see the colonists as cruel and unfair people. Today Native Americans, or Indians, have been given reservations, or land in order to repay them for what had been taken from them. There is much controversy on what else the Indians receive, but the United States is putting in some effort to justify what they had done. What is warfare? According to Webster’s Dictionary, warfare is the process of military struggle between two nations or groups of nations. Warfare is a part of just about every nation’s history.What influenced the American Revolution? There were a series of events that impacted the way Americans thought and gave them courage to rebel. The Haitian Revolution put thoughts in the Americans head to become free when the slaves rebelled and took Haiti from the French. By 1770’s about 1/5 of the British Empire was made up of Americans. The Sugar Act and Stamp Act were both two occurrences that made the colonists extremely angry, and after mass rioting the act was repealed. Br itain came up with the Townshend Act, which placed import on glass, paint, paper, lead and tea.To enforce the act the British would use blank search warrants and search any building for any reason. The colonists became very upset and scared. As a result of this there were many outbreaks, which led up to the Boston Massacre. With many civilians being killed during the Boston Massacre, this is when the people start to realize that Americans need to be independent. The Americans start to make homespun clothes and homemade food and tea, which starts to bring patriotism, which makes it easy to put together a military.The French come to aid of the Americans by providing cash to help defeat the British. The American Revolution had major impacts. Examples of these impacts include things such as independent states with a centralized government, decentralized colonies to independent states with a central government, formation of a constitution, and separation of church and state, and the rest riction of slavery. This American Revolution plays a very crucial role in who we are as Americans today. The last major impact on American identity is the influence that the British had on the Americans.The United States continues to be dependent on the British for culture and other things showing that America as a nation still followed Britain. Manufacturing has not yet been developed so the Americans are still depending on England to get their goods. America starts to take off when Jedidah Mose, a minister from Connecticut, creates an American geography for classroom use. The Europeans eventually do not have local knowledge about America and start asking for information. Goods start being carried on American ships, which is a symbolic change as a new point in history of the US. America is a land of wonders, in which everything is in constant motion and every change seems an improvement. † The point when Americans are seen as free and equal is when the Empress of China, the f irst US ship to go to China, sets sail. On that same day a ship leaves from New York to go to London, to pronounce peace terms. These actions are not being done by the government, but by merchants, although the people see it as a national action. Americans can now enjoy buying things on their own terms. Americans continue to judge themselves as British, and the English do not respect them.Americans are very eager to always read British reports that are talking about America, and they are very sensitive to this. Americans need to cut ties with British if they want to have their own identity. Between the dates 1810-1830 America shifts between being dependent on the British, and being independent. Native Americans, warfare, and European culture have all been major factors that formed the American identity, and who we are today. Some of our values and trends may have changed throughout the years, but we still hold onto the roots of our culture.It is a blessing to live with freedom, and sometimes people take that for granted. Today, we are just born into the US and we are granted these freedoms, but in the colonial times, they had to fight for it. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Tocqueville, Alexis D. Democracy in America. N. p. : Penguin Group, 2003. Print. [ 2 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"American Empires, Colonies. † Lecture. Michigan State University. January 10, 2013. [ 3 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"American Empires, Colonies. † Lecture. Michigan State University.January 10, 2013. [ 4 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"Indian Wars and Captivity. † Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013. [ 5 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"Indian Wars and Captivity. † Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013. [ 6 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"Indian Wars and Captivity. † Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013. [ 7 ]. Rowlandson, Mary. The Sovereignty and Goodness of God. N. p. : n. p. , 1682. Print. [ 8 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"French Revolution. † Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013. [ 9 ]. Krutz, E.Conroy. â€Å"French Revolution. † Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013. [ 10 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"Tourism, Commerce, and American Identity. †Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013. [ 11 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"Tourism, Commerce, and American Identity. †Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013. [ 12 ]. Tocqueville, Alexis D. Democracy in America. N. p. : Penguin Group, 2003. Print. [ 13 ]. Krutz, E. Conroy. â€Å"Tourism, Commerce, and American Identity. †Lecture. Michigan State University. January 15, 2013.

Term Papers Writers Features

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PTSD in Sexual Assault Victims - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2327 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/08/08 Category Health Essay Level High school Tags: PTSD Essay Did you like this example? PTSD in Sexual Assault Victims According to the DSM-5, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs from an exposure to a traumatic event in which an individual experiences or witnesses death or threatened death, actual or serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violation (Barlow, et al. 160). It can occur in anyone who [has] experienced or witnessed . Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "PTSD in Sexual Assault Victims" essay for you Create order . . a natural disaster, a serious accident, a terrorist act, war/combat, rape or other violent personal assault (Parekh). Currently, an estimated five percent of Americans (which is more than thirteen million people) have PTSD (Post Traumatic). In specific focus for the disorder, the estimated risk for developing PTSD for people who have experienced sexual assault is significantly large: forty-nine percent for rape victims and around twenty-four for other instances of sexual assault (Post Traumatic). PTSD as a result of sexual assault is quite common for victims. When recognizing if one suffers from this disorder, it should be noted that PTSD has three main clusters of symptoms that victims will have: reexperiencing, avoidance, and hyper-arousal (Post Traumatic). Under these clusters are more specific symptoms of PTSD, including the following: nightmares and sleep disturbance, distress at exposure to similar stimuli, avoidance of talk of trauma, detachment, anger outbursts, startle response, hypervigilance, restricted affect, and regressive behavior, (Barlow, et al. 161) as well as many others. Instead of avoidance of talking about trauma, some victims might not actually be able to recall events at all due to dissociative amnesia, or because of injuries or drug usage at the time of the traumatic event (Barlow, et al. 163). Symptoms may vary from person to person depending on the severity of the traumatic experience (or if there was more than one traumatic occurrence for the victim). Symptoms most common to victims of sexual assault are dissociation or re-living the physical trauma that they experienced through flashbacks or from similar scenarios or stimuli (Burgess), because of the direct and intense invasion of [their bodies], personal space, and safety that has occurred (Burgess). In addition to the primary symptoms of PTSD that people experience, victims of sexual assault may also commonly experience negative emotions such as depression, guilt, shame, and distrust (Burgess) following the sexual assault, which can evidently have a direct affect on ones daily life and habits by causing disinterest or fear in participating in daily activities. It is common for victims to develop a persistent and negative view about themselves, others, and the world, which also causes them to lose self-esteem or blame themselves for the traumatic experience (Barlow, et all 163). This can many times lead to social isolation by the victim from friends, family, or others (even therapists). Because of unfortunate symptoms like these, victims of sexual assault are actually between 1.4 and 3.6 times more likely to report a suicide attempt that nonvictims (Tomasula, et al). Like the symptoms themselves vary, so can the duration of those symptoms. In all cases of PTSD, symptoms under the clusters do have to last for at least one month following an event to receive a PTSD diagnosis (Krystal). However, many symptoms can be existent even throughout a persons lifetime after that initial month. Symptoms can reappear as stressful stimuli (more commonly known as triggers) introduced to a person, or if they experience another traumatic event similar to the original one. When seeking diagnosis, a person must be clearly experiencing the clusters of main PTSD symptoms (reexperiencing, avoidance, and hyper-arousal) for at least one month, as mentioned above (Krystal). For many victims who suffer from PTSD, assessment of the disorder is commonly difficult; many people, due to the avoidance section of the symptom cluster, will find it hard to recognize they have a problem, especially if the symptoms appear after a length of time following the traumatic event (Diagnosing PTSD). Other issues that arise include that many victims believe they can handle the disorder on their own without professional help, are embarrassed or ashamed of what happened, or simply dont know where to look for aid (Diagnosing PTSD). For actual assessment of the disorder, medical professionals will first take a complete medical and personal history (Diagnosing PTSD) for the patient and then look for specific signs including the exact event that was experienced/learned about/witnessed (for example, rape), the number of and intensity of the symptoms that the patient is experiencing (like nightmares or startle responses), how he or she is coping with those symptoms (if he or she is experiencing avoidance, etc), and the duration of the symptoms (Diagnosing PTSD). For victims of sexual assault, some medical professionals (if the victims are children) will often look for reenactment of the traumatic experience through play (Diagnosing PTSD), because many children are not able to communicate their traumatic experiences in the same ways that adults can. Screening for PTSD in victims can sometimes be completed through online surveys (which are today popular and convenient and test for many different mental disorders); some people may prefer taking a survey on their own, or some may like the idea of a medical professional providing a written one to them (this would obviously be more accurate and recommended). Physical examinations are often completed on patients who are seeking help, to check for other medical issues that could be contributing to or causing symptoms (Tull and Gans). Psychological examinations are usually recommended; this allows victims to openly discuss their experiences (if they so choose) with a professional and tell them about the specific event they experienced that has caused certain symptoms (Tull and Gans). The information from psychological examinations, surveys, and physical examinations (not always are all of them necessary or completed) is then gathered to give the potential PTSD diagnosis for the patient, depending on how intense or clear the results are. The first appearances of PTSD were seen around the 1980s within the DSM-3; the very first terms used to address the symptoms of the disorder were commonly heard of as shell-shock, soldiers heart, or war neurosis and closely followed the disaster of the Vietnam War (Crocq and Crocq). However, epics like the tale of Gilgamesh propose that the first case of chronic mental symptoms caused by sudden fright in the battlefield [were] reported in the account of the battle of Marathon by Herodotus, written in 440 bc (Crocq and Crocq). Far before symptoms were being recognized as potentially eligible for being an actual disorder, many of these now-defined symptoms were merely thought to be part of human fundamental experience (Crocq and Crocq). In the late 1700s, Nosographie Philosophique (1798) described the case of a philosopher who became apprehensive, depressed, being withdrawn, and having an overall personality change after a near-death experience, and in 1884 those who experienced severe railway accidents (and experienced similar symptoms) made way for the first mention of the term traumatic neurosis (Crocq and Crocq). In World War I, the observed mental distress of soldiers was repeatedly described in literary works; the aftermath of this and the Vietnam War brought high rates of suicide or alcoholism amongst veterans and sparked the need for psychiatric assessment and treatment, which led to PTSD finally being added to the DSM-3 in 1980 (Crocq and Crocq). For victims of sexual assault, more detail has been recently added to the DSM-5 for PTSD: As to the specific definition of an intensely stressful event, DSM-5 retains the prior description of threatened death, serious injury and adds sexual violence. Whereas the test in DSM-IV-TR limits the description of sexual trauma to sexual assault, DSM-5 presents a wide-ranging set of examples of sexual violence (Levin, et al). While statistics are difficult to find about when sexual assault was considered for PTSD before being added to the DSM-5, this quotation reveals that sexual assault is becoming more common when talking about which types of traumatic events cause the disorder. Treatment of PTSD can vary; the main treatments for the disorder include psychotherapy, medication, or both (Treatment for), but it depends on the victims preference or accessibility to these treatments. For psychotherapy, a victim may refer to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for trauma-focused therapy that has weekly meetings to identify, understand, and change thinking and behavior patterns (Treatment for). Forms CBT are Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), Prolonged Exposure (PE), Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EDMR), and Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) (Treatment for). Other therapies for PTSD besides CBT include Present Centered Therapy (PCT), which is non-trauma focused and orients around current problems instead of directly processing traumatic experiences (Treatment for). So, either a victim chooses therapy that directly addresses the traumatic event he or she experienced, or he or she can choose a therapy to avert his or her focus from the traumatic event to the present. Again, the therapy chosen can depend on many outside factors or the type of traumatic experience. And like mentioned before, many people often do not even seek treatment (because they are ashamed or confused at where they should look for it). Common medications used to treat PTSD are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (Treatment for). Sertraline and Paroxetine are the only medications currently approved by the FDA for PTSD, but Fluoxetine and antidepressants such as Venlafaxine are often provided to victims as well (Medications for). Some medications, such as Topiramate, are in the anti-epileptic category of medications and [are] thought to modulate glutamate neurotransmission . . . but the side-effects are greater than they are for SSRI antidepressants, so there is insufficient evidence for the recommendation of such medications (Medications for). Victims of sexual assault commonly use these medications as a way of relieving anxiety experienced from PTSD symptoms. However, if not taken properly, many victims are also unfortunately susceptible to drug abuse problems. Some special populations for those with PTSD who have been sexually assaulted include victims from domestic violence, university students, and those who are intellectually disabled. Domestic violence is problematic because often times people do not know what is going on in someone elses relationship or the victim is scared to come forward (due to stalking, death threats, etc). For university students, parties, access to alcohol, or dorm room security can be significant contributing factors that correspond to sexual assault cases. For those with intellectual disability, sometimes consent is difficult or impossible to give. High rates of sexual violence in the country suggest that people with intellectual disabilities (ID) are likely to be sexually victimized, (Shabalala and Jasson) often for this fact that consent cannot be given. Eighty-one percent of women and ten percent of men have experienced some form of sexual assault in relationships have reported experiencing PTSD symptoms or some form of impaired daily functioning (Statistics). Women in college are three times more likely than all women to get sexually assaulted and around five percent of undergraduate males experience sexual assault (Campus Sexual Violence). Even if not reported at universities, PTSD symptoms are still highly likely to be seen in victims of sexual assault. For people with intellectual disabilities, one study in 2011 that tested fifty-four people with intellectual disability (twenty-seven who were sexually assaulted and twenty-seven who werent) for symptoms of PTSD showed that those who were intellectually disabled had intense PTSD symptoms from all three clusters (Shabalala and Jasson). In summary, PTSD, with its clusters of many intense symptoms, is incredibly common for trauma victims who experience some form of sexual assault in their lifetime. Although there are many negative symptoms that result from this disorder that can persist for long periods of time, there are also many positive forms of therapy or medications available for victims as treatment if they so choose to take that path. The history of PTSD symptoms has been mentioned and recorded even before the first DSM was published, and it is clear that psychologists have worked hard at improving the specifics of what can cause PTSD in victims of sexual violence (which will lead to easier assessment and diagnosis in the future). As this improvement continues, treatments will also update and be able to aid those with PTSD from sexual assault, whether university students, victims of domestic violence, those with disabilities, or people from other populations. Works Cited Barlow, David H., et al. Anxiety, Trauma- and Stressor-Related, and Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders. Abnormal Psychology an Integrative Approach, 8th ed., Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2015, pp. 160163. Burgess, Lindsay. This Is What PTSD Looks Like for Sexual Assault Survivors. Brit + Co, Brit+Co, 30 Mar. 2018, www.brit.co/what-ptsd-looks-like-for-sexual-assault-survivors/. Campus Sexual Violence: Statistics. RAINN | The Nations Largest Anti-Sexual Violence Organization, RAINN, 2018, www.rainn.org/statistics/campus-sexual-violence. Crocq, Marc-Antoine, and Louis Crocq. From Shell Shock and War Neurosis to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: a History of Psychotraumatology. NCBI, Dialogues Clin Neurosci, Mar. 2000, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181586/. Diagnosing PTSD or Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Diagnosis. PTSD Alliance, PTSD Alliance, LLC, 2018, www.ptsdalliance.org/diagnosis/. Krystal, John H. How Long Does PTSD Last? Brain Behavior Research Foundation, The Brain Behavior Research Foundation, 16 Feb. 2018, www.bbrfoundation.org/ask-an- expert/how-long-does-ptsd-last. Levin, Andrew P, et al. DSM-5 and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, June 2014, pp. 146158., jaapl.org/content/42/2/146. Medications for PTSD. American Psychological Association, American Psychological Association, 31 July 2017, www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/treatments/medications.aspx. Parekh, Ranna. What Is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder? Warning Signs of Mental Illness, American Psychiatric Association, Jan. 2017, www.psychiatry.org/patients families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Fact Sheet. Sidran.org, Sidran, 1995, www.sidran.org/resources/for-survivors-and-loved-ones/post-traumatic-stress-disorder- fact-sheet/. Shabalala, Nokuthula, and Aimee Jasson. PTSD Symptoms in Intellectually Disabled Victims of Sexual Assault. South African Journal of Psychology, vol. 41, no. 4, 1 Dec. 2011, pp. 424436., doi:10.1177/008124631104100403. Statistics. The National Domestic Violence Hotline, The National Domestic Violence Hotline, www.thehotline.org/resources/statistics/. Tomasula, Jessica L., et al. The Association between Sexual Assault and Suicidal Activity in a National Sample. School Psychology Quarterly, vol. 27, no. 2, 2012, pp. 109119., doi:10.1037/a0029162. Treatment for PTSD. Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA, ADAA, 2018, adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/treatment. Tull, Matthew, and Steven Gans. PTSD: Symptoms and Diagnosis. Verywell Mind, Dotdash, 3 Dec. 2018, www.verywellmind.com/requirements-for-ptsd-diagnosis-2797637.